What is the Measure of Ac

Electric electric current that periodically reverses management

Alternating electric current
(AC) is an electric current which periodically reverses direction and changes its magnitude continuously with time in contrast to directly current (DC) which flows only in 1 management. Alternating current is the form in which electrical power is delivered to businesses and residences, and information technology is the form of electric energy that consumers typically employ when they plug kitchen appliances, televisions, fans and electric lamps into a wall socket. A common source of DC power is a battery cell in a flashlight. The abbreviations
AC
and
DC
are oftentimes used to mean only
alternate
and
straight, as when they modify
current
or
voltage.^[1]
[2]

The usual waveform of alternating current in nigh electric power circuits is a sine wave, whose positive one-half-period corresponds with positive management of the current and vice versa. In certain applications, like guitar amplifiers, different waveforms are used, such equally triangular waves or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of alternating current. These types of alternating current behave information such as sound (audio) or images (video) sometimes carried by modulation of an AC carrier signal. These currents typically alternate at higher frequencies than those used in ability manual.

Manual, distribution, and domestic power supply

[edit]

Electrical energy is distributed as alternate electric current because Air conditioning voltage may be increased or decreased with a transformer. This allows the power to be transmitted through power lines efficiently at high voltage, which reduces the energy lost as oestrus due to resistance of the wire, and transformed to a lower, safer, voltage for use. Use of a higher voltage leads to significantly more efficient manual of power. The ability losses (

$$



P


w





{\displaystyle P_{\rm {due west}}}

) in the wire are a product of the square of the current ( I ) and the resistance (R) of the wire, described by the formula:

$$



P


w



=

I

2


R

.


{\displaystyle P_{\rm {w}}=I^{2}R\,.}

This means that when transmitting a fixed ability on a given wire, if the current is halved (i.e. the voltage is doubled), the power loss due to the wire’s resistance will be reduced to one quarter.

The power transmitted is equal to the product of the current and the voltage (assuming no stage difference); that is,

$$



P


t



=
I
V

.


{\displaystyle P_{\rm {t}}=Iv\,.}

Consequently, power transmitted at a higher voltage requires less loss-producing current than for the same ability at a lower voltage. Power is often transmitted at hundreds of kilovolts on pylons, and transformed down to tens of kilovolts to be transmitted on lower level lines, and finally transformed downwards to 100 Five – 240 Five for domestic use.

High voltages have disadvantages, such as the increased insulation required, and mostly increased difficulty in their safe handling. In a ability constitute, energy is generated at a convenient voltage for the blueprint of a generator, and then stepped upwards to a high voltage for transmission. Near the loads, the transmission voltage is stepped down to the voltages used by equipment. Consumer voltages vary somewhat depending on the state and size of load, but generally motors and lighting are congenital to utilise upwardly to a few hundred volts between phases. The voltage delivered to equipment such as lighting and motor loads is standardized, with an commanded range of voltage over which equipment is expected to operate. Standard ability utilization voltages and percentage tolerance vary in the unlike mains ability systems found in the world. Loftier-voltage straight-electric current (HVDC) electric power transmission systems accept go more feasible every bit applied science has provided efficient ways of changing the voltage of DC ability. Transmission with loftier voltage direct current was not feasible in the early on days of electric power transmission, as there was and then no economically feasible way to step downwards the voltage of DC for finish user applications such as lighting incandescent bulbs.

Iii-phase electrical generation is very common. The simplest way is to use iii separate coils in the generator stator, physically beginning by an angle of 120° (1-third of a complete 360° phase) to each other. 3 current waveforms are produced that are equal in magnitude and 120° out of phase to each other. If coils are added opposite to these (60° spacing), they generate the same phases with reverse polarity and so tin can be merely wired together. In practice, higher “pole orders” are ordinarily used. For instance, a 12-pole motorcar would have 36 coils (10° spacing). The reward is that lower rotational speeds can exist used to generate the same frequency. For case, a two-pole car running at 3600 rpm and a 12-pole machine running at 600 rpm produce the aforementioned frequency; the lower speed is preferable for larger machines. If the load on a three-phase system is balanced every bit amidst the phases, no current flows through the neutral point. Fifty-fifty in the worst-case unbalanced (linear) load, the neutral electric current volition non exceed the highest of the stage currents. Non-linear loads (e.thou. the switch-mode power supplies widely used) may crave an oversized neutral motorcoach and neutral conductor in the upstream distribution panel to handle harmonics. Harmonics tin cause neutral conductor current levels to exceed that of i or all stage conductors.

For 3-phase at utilization voltages a iv-wire system is frequently used. When stepping downwards three-phase, a transformer with a Delta (iii-wire) master and a Star (4-wire, center-earthed) secondary is often used then there is no demand for a neutral on the supply side. For smaller customers (only how pocket-size varies past state and age of the installation) only a single phase and neutral, or two phases and neutral, are taken to the belongings. For larger installations all three phases and neutral are taken to the main distribution panel. From the three-stage principal panel, both single and 3-phase circuits may atomic number 82 off. Iii-wire single-phase systems, with a single center-tapped transformer giving ii alive conductors, is a common distribution scheme for residential and pocket-size commercial buildings in Northward America. This organization is sometimes incorrectly referred to every bit “2 phase”. A similar method is used for a dissimilar reason on structure sites in the Britain. Pocket-sized power tools and lighting are supposed to be supplied by a local center-tapped transformer with a voltage of 55 5 between each power conductor and globe. This significantly reduces the take chances of electrical shock in the upshot that one of the live conductors becomes exposed through an equipment fault whilst still allowing a reasonable voltage of 110 V betwixt the two conductors for running the tools.

A third wire, chosen the bond (or world) wire, is ofttimes connected between non-current-carrying metal enclosures and earth ground. This conductor provides protection from electric shock due to accidental contact of circuit conductors with the metallic chassis of portable appliances and tools. Bonding all non-current-carrying metal parts into 1 consummate system ensures there is ever a depression electrical impedance path to ground sufficient to carry any fault electric current for as long as it takes for the organization to clear the fault. This depression impedance path allows the maximum corporeality of mistake current, causing the overcurrent protection device (breakers, fuses) to trip or burn out equally rapidly as possible, bringing the electrical arrangement to a safe land. All bail wires are bonded to ground at the main service panel, as is the neutral/identified usher if nowadays.

AC power supply frequencies

[edit]

The frequency of the electrical system varies by land and sometimes within a state; almost electric power is generated at either 50 or 60 Hertz. Some countries have a mixture of fifty Hz and 60 Hz supplies, notably electricity power manual in Japan. A low frequency eases the design of electric motors, specially for hoisting, crushing and rolling applications, and commutator-type traction motors for applications such as railways. However, low frequency likewise causes noticeable flicker in arc lamps and incandescent low-cal bulbs. The use of lower frequencies likewise provided the reward of lower impedance losses, which are proportional to frequency. The original Niagara Falls generators were built to produce 25 Hz power, as a compromise between low frequency for traction and heavy induction motors, while nonetheless allowing incandescent lighting to operate (although with noticeable flicker). Most of the 25 Hz residential and commercial customers for Niagara Falls power were converted to 60 Hz past the late 1950s, although some^[
which?
]
25 Hz industrial customers still existed every bit of the offset of the 21st century. sixteen.7 Hz power (formerly 16 2/3 Hz) is still used in some European rails systems, such as in Austria, Germany, Kingdom of norway, Sweden and Switzerland. Off-shore, war machine, fabric industry, marine, aircraft, and spacecraft applications sometimes utilize 400 Hz, for benefits of reduced weight of apparatus or higher motor speeds. Computer mainframe systems were oftentimes powered past 400 Hz or 415 Hz for benefits of ripple reduction while using smaller internal AC to DC conversion units.^{[
citation needed
]}

Effects at high frequencies

[edit]

A direct electric current flows uniformly throughout the cross-department of a homogeneous electrically conducting wire. An alternating current of whatever frequency is forced away from the wire’southward eye, toward its outer surface. This is because an alternating electric current (which is the effect of the acceleration of electric accuse) creates electromagnetic waves (a phenomenon known as electromagnetic radiation). Electric conductors are not conducive to electromagnetic waves (a perfect electrical conductor prohibits all electromagnetic waves within its boundary), so a wire that is fabricated of a non-perfect usher (a conductor with finite, rather than infinite, electrical conductivity) pushes the alternating current, forth with their associated electromagnetic fields, away from the wire’s eye. The phenomenon of alternating current being pushed away from the heart of the conductor is called skin effect, and a direct current does not exhibit this effect, since a direct current does not create electromagnetic waves.

At very high frequencies, the electric current no longer flows
in
the wire, only finer flows
on
the surface of the wire, within a thickness of a few skin depths. The skin depth is the thickness at which the current density is reduced by 63% (a reduction of one neper). Fifty-fifty at relatively low frequencies used for power transmission (fifty Hz – sixty Hz), non-uniform distribution of current still occurs in sufficiently thick conductors. For example, the pare depth of a copper usher is approximately 8.57 mm at 60 Hz, so high current conductors are usually hollow to reduce their mass and cost. Since the current tends to catamenia in the periphery of conductors, the constructive cantankerous-department of the conductor is reduced. This increases the constructive Air conditioning resistance of the conductor, since resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-exclusive area. The Ac resistance is often many times higher than the DC resistance, causing a much college energy loss due to ohmic heating (also called I^twoR loss).

Techniques for reducing Ac resistance

[edit]

For low to medium frequencies, conductors can be divided into stranded wires, each insulated from the others, with the relative positions of private strands specially arranged within the conductor packet. Wire constructed using this technique is called Litz wire. This measure helps to partially mitigate peel event by forcing more equal current throughout the total cross section of the stranded conductors. Litz wire is used for making high-Q inductors, reducing losses in flexible conductors carrying very loftier currents at lower frequencies, and in the windings of devices conveying higher radio frequency electric current (up to hundreds of kilohertz), such equally switch-mode power supplies and radio frequency transformers.

Techniques for reducing radiations loss

[edit]

As written above, an alternating electric current is made of electrical accuse under periodic acceleration, which causes radiation of electromagnetic waves. Free energy that is radiated is lost. Depending on the frequency, different techniques are used to minimize the loss due to radiation.

Twisted pairs

[edit]

At frequencies upwards to about 1 GHz, pairs of wires are twisted together in a cable, forming a twisted pair. This reduces losses from electromagnetic radiation and inductive coupling. A twisted pair must exist used with a balanced signalling arrangement, so that the 2 wires comport equal but opposite currents. Each wire in a twisted pair radiates a signal, but information technology is finer cancelled by radiations from the other wire, resulting in almost no radiation loss.

Coaxial cables

[edit]

Coaxial cables are usually used at audio frequencies and above for convenience. A coaxial cable has a conductive wire inside a conductive tube, separated past a dielectric layer. The electric current flowing on the surface of the inner conductor is equal and contrary to the current flowing on the inner surface of the outer tube. The electromagnetic field is thus completely contained within the tube, and (ideally) no free energy is lost to radiation or coupling exterior the tube. Coaxial cables accept acceptably pocket-size losses for frequencies upward to nigh v GHz. For microwave frequencies greater than 5 GHz, the losses (due mainly to the dielectric separating the inner and outer tubes being a non-ideal insulator) get too large, making waveguides a more efficient medium for transmitting free energy. Coaxial cables often employ a perforated dielectric layer to separate the inner and outer conductors in society to minimize the power dissipated past the dielectric.

Waveguides

[edit]

Waveguides are like to coaxial cables, as both consist of tubes, with the biggest difference beingness that waveguides have no inner usher. Waveguides can take any arbitrary cross department, simply rectangular cantankerous sections are the most common. Considering waveguides do not have an inner conductor to acquit a render current, waveguides cannot evangelize energy by means of an current, but rather by means of a
guided
electromagnetic field. Although surface currents practice menstruation on the inner walls of the waveguides, those surface currents do not bear ability. Ability is carried past the guided electromagnetic fields. The surface currents are fix by the guided electromagnetic fields and have the result of keeping the fields within the waveguide and preventing leakage of the fields to the space exterior the waveguide. Waveguides have dimensions comparable to the wavelength of the alternate current to exist transmitted, so they are viable only at microwave frequencies. In addition to this mechanical feasibility, electrical resistance of the non-ideal metals forming the walls of the waveguide causes dissipation of power (surface currents flowing on lossy conductors dissipate power). At higher frequencies, the power lost to this dissipation becomes unacceptably large.

Fiber eyes

[edit]

At frequencies greater than 200 GHz, waveguide dimensions go impractically small, and the ohmic losses in the waveguide walls become large. Instead, fiber optics, which are a form of dielectric waveguides, can be used. For such frequencies, the concepts of voltages and currents are no longer used.

Mathematics of AC voltages

[edit]

Alternating currents are accompanied (or acquired) past alternating voltages. An Air conditioning voltage
v
tin can be described mathematically as a office of time by the post-obit equation:

$$


v
(
t
)
=

V

summit


sin
⁡


(
ω


t
)


{\displaystyle v(t)=V_{\text{tiptop}}\sin(\omega t)}

,

where

The peak-to-peak value of an AC voltage is divers as the departure betwixt its positive acme and its negative peak. Since the maximum value of

$$


sin
⁡


(
x
)


{\displaystyle \sin(x)}

is +1 and the minimum value is −i, an AC voltage swings betwixt

$$


+

5

height




{\displaystyle +V_{\text{superlative}}}

and

$$


−



5

elevation




{\displaystyle -V_{\text{top}}}

. The tiptop-to-peak voltage, usually written equally

$$



V

pp




{\displaystyle V_{\text{pp}}}

or

$$



V

P-P




{\displaystyle V_{\text{P-P}}}

, is therefore

$$



Five

peak


−


(
−



V

peak


)
=
ii

Five

peak




{\displaystyle V_{\text{peak}}-(-V_{\text{peak}})=2V_{\text{acme}}}

.

Ability

[edit]

The human relationship between voltage and the power delivered is:

$$


p
(
t
)
=




five

2


(
t
)

R




{\displaystyle p(t)={\frac {5^{ii}(t)}{R}}}

where

$$


R


{\displaystyle R}

represents a load resistance.

Rather than using instantaneous ability,

$$


p
(
t
)


{\displaystyle p(t)}

, it is more practical to use a time averaged power (where the averaging is performed over any integer number of cycles). Therefore, Ac voltage is often expressed as a root mean foursquare (RMS) value, written as

$$



V

rms




{\displaystyle V_{\text{rms}}}

, because

$$



P

time averaged


=





V

rms




2


R


.


{\displaystyle P_{\text{time averaged}}={\frac {{V_{\text{rms}}}^{ii}}{R}}.}

Ability oscillation

five
(
t
)



=

Five

superlative


sin
⁡


(
ω


t
)




i
(
t
)



=



v
(
t
)

R


=



V

peak


R


sin
⁡


(
ω


t
)




P
(
t
)



=
five
(
t
)
i
(
t
)
=



(

V

summit



)

2



R



sin

2


⁡


(
ω


t
)






{\displaystyle {\brainstorm{aligned}v(t)&=V_{\text{peak}}\sin(\omega t)\\i(t)&={\frac {v(t)}{R}}={\frac {V_{\text{pinnacle}}}{R}}\sin(\omega t)\\P(t)&=v(t)i(t)={\frac {(V_{\text{acme}})^{ii}}{R}}\sin ^{2}(\omega t)\end{aligned}}}

Root mean foursquare voltage


[edit]

Below an Air conditioning waveform (with no DC component) is causeless.

The RMS voltage is the square root of the mean over one cycle of the square of the instantaneous voltage.

Examples of alternating current

[edit]

To illustrate these concepts, consider a 230 V AC mains supply used in many countries around the world. It is and so called because its root mean square value is 230 V. This means that the time-averaged ability delivered is equivalent to the power delivered by a DC voltage of 230 Five. To determine the peak voltage (aamplitude), we can rearrange the above equation to:

$$



V

peak


=


2




V

rms


.


{\displaystyle V_{\text{peak}}={\sqrt {ii}}\ V_{\text{rms}}.}

For 230 V AC, the peak voltage

$$



V

peak




{\displaystyle V_{\text{superlative}}}

is therefore

$$


230

 V

×




2




{\displaystyle 230{\text{ V}}\times {\sqrt {two}}}

, which is most 325 V. During the course of one cycle the voltage rises from zip to 325 5, falls through zero to −325 V, and returns to zero.

Information manual

[edit]

Alternating electric current is used to transmit information, every bit in the cases of telephone and cable television. Information signals are carried over a wide range of AC frequencies. POTS telephone signals have a frequency of most 3 kHz, close to the baseband audio frequency. Cable television set and other cablevision-transmitted information currents may alternating at frequencies of tens to thousands of megahertz. These frequencies are like to the electromagnetic wave frequencies ofttimes used to transmit the same types of information over the air.

History

[edit]

The first alternator to produce alternating current was a dynamo electric generator based on Michael Faraday’s principles constructed past the French musical instrument maker Hippolyte Pixii in 1832.^[iii]
Pixii later on added a commutator to his device to produce the (and then) more than unremarkably used direct current. The earliest recorded practical application of alternating current is past Guillaume Duchenne, inventor and developer of electrotherapy. In 1855, he announced that AC was superior to direct current for electrotherapeutic triggering of muscle contractions.^[4]
Alternating electric current technology was developed further by the Hungarian Ganz Works visitor (1870s), and in the 1880s: Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti, Lucien Gaulard, and Galileo Ferraris.

In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting arrangement where sets of induction coils were installed forth a high voltage Ac line. Instead of changing voltage, the primary windings transferred power to the secondary windings which were connected to one or several ‘electric candles’ (arc lamps) of his own design,^[5]
[6]
used to continue the failure of one lamp from disabling the entire excursion.^[5]
In 1878, the Ganz factory, Budapest, Republic of hungary, began manufacturing equipment for electric lighting and, by 1883, had installed over 50 systems in Austria-Hungary. Their Air conditioning systems used arc and incandescent lamps, generators, and other equipment.^[vii]

Transformers

[edit]

Alternate current systems can use transformers to alter voltage from low to high level and back, allowing generation and consumption at low voltages only manual, peradventure over nifty distances, at loftier voltage, with savings in the cost of conductors and energy losses. A bipolar open-core ability transformer developed by Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs was demonstrated in London in 1881, and attracted the interest of Westinghouse. They also exhibited the invention in Turin in 1884. All the same these early induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient at transferring power to loads. Until most 1880, the paradigm for Air conditioning ability transmission from a loftier voltage supply to a low voltage load was a series circuit. Open-core transformers with a ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in series to permit utilise of a high voltage for transmission while presenting a low voltage to the lamps. The inherent flaw in this method was that turning off a unmarried lamp (or other electrical device) affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same circuit. Many adjustable transformer designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of the series excursion, including those employing methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a gyre.^[eight]
The direct electric current systems did not take these drawbacks, giving information technology significant advantages over early AC systems.

Pioneers

[edit]

In the fall of 1884, Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri (ZBD), three engineers associated with the Ganz Works of Budapest, determined that open up-core devices were impractical, as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage.^[ix]
In their articulation 1885 patent applications for novel transformers (later chosen ZBD transformers), they described 2 designs with closed magnetic circuits where copper windings were either wound around a ring core of fe wires or else surrounded by a core of atomic number 26 wires.^[8]
In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the confines of the iron core, with no intentional path through air (run across toroidal cores). The new transformers were 3.4 times more efficient than the open-cadre bipolar devices of Gaulard and Gibbs.^[10]
The Ganz mill in 1884 shipped the earth’s first five high-efficiency AC transformers.^[11]
This get-go unit had been manufactured to the following specifications: 1,400 Westward, twoscore Hz, 120:72 V, 11.half dozen:19.4 A, ratio 1.67:i, i-phase, shell form.^[eleven]

The ZBD patents included two other major interrelated innovations: one concerning the utilize of parallel connected, instead of series connected, utilization loads, the other apropos the ability to accept high turns ratio transformers such that the supply network voltage could be much higher (initially 1400 Five to 2000 5) than the voltage of utilization loads (100 V initially preferred).^[12]
[13]
When employed in parallel connected electric distribution systems, closed-core transformers finally made it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes, businesses and public spaces.^{[fourteen]
[xv]}
Bláthy had suggested the use of closed cores, Zipernowsky had suggested the use of parallel shunt connections, and Déri had performed the experiments;^[16]
The other essential milestone was the introduction of ‘voltage source, voltage intensive’ (VSVI) systems’^[17]
by the invention of abiding voltage generators in 1885.^[18]
In early 1885, the three engineers besides eliminated the problem of boil current losses with the invention of the lamination of electromagnetic cores.^[19]
Ottó Bláthy as well invented the first AC electricity meter.^{[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]}

The AC ability system was adult and adopted rapidly after 1886 due to its ability to distribute electricity efficiently over long distances, overcoming the limitations of the straight electric current arrangement. In 1886, the ZBD engineers designed the world’s get-go power station that used AC generators to power a parallel-connected common electrical network, the steam-powered Rome-Cerchi ability plant.^[24]
The reliability of the Air conditioning applied science received impetus after the Ganz Works electrified a large European metropolis: Rome in 1886.^[24]

In the UK, Sebastian de Ferranti, who had been developing Air-conditioning generators and transformers in London since 1882, redesigned the Air-conditioning system at the Grosvenor Gallery power station in 1886 for the London Electrical Supply Corporation (LESCo) including alternators of his own design and transformer designs similar to Gaulard and Gibbs.^[25]
In 1890, he designed their power station at Deptford^[26]
and converted the Grosvenor Gallery station across the Thames into an electric substation, showing the manner to integrate older plants into a universal Air conditioning supply system.^[27]

In the U.S., William Stanley, Jr. designed one of the first practical devices to transfer Ac ability efficiently between isolated circuits. Using pairs of coils wound on a common atomic number 26 core, his blueprint, chosen an induction coil, was an early transformer. Stanley besides worked on engineering and adapting European designs such equally the Gaulard and Gibbs transformer for US entrepreneur George Westinghouse who started edifice Air-conditioning systems in 1886. The spread of Westinghouse and other AC systems triggered a push dorsum in late 1887 past Thomas Edison (a proponent of direct current) who attempted to discredit alternating current as too dangerous in a public campaign called the “war of the currents”. In 1888, alternate current systems gained further viability with introduction of a functional AC motor, something these systems had lacked upward till so. The design, an induction motor, was independently invented past Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla (with Tesla’southward design being licensed by Westinghouse in the Usa). This design was farther developed into the modern practical three-phase form by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown.^[28]
and Jonas Wenström.

The Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant and the original Niagara Falls Adams Power Plant were among the beginning hydroelectric alternating electric current ability plants. The commencement long distance transmission of unmarried-phase electricity was from a hydroelectric generating plant in Oregon at Willamette Falls which in 1890 sent power xiv miles downriver to downtown Portland for street lighting.^[29]
In 1891, a 2d transmission arrangement was installed in Telluride Colorado.^[30]
The San Antonio Canyon Generator was the tertiary commercial single-phase hydroelectric AC power plant in the The states to provide long-distance electricity. It was completed on December 31, 1892, by Almarian William Decker to provide power to the urban center of Pomona, California, which was 14 miles away. In 1893, he designed the commencement commercial iii-phase power plant in the United States using alternating current—the hydroelectric Mill Creek No. ane Hydroelectric Establish near Redlands, California. Decker’southward pattern incorporated ten kV three-phase manual and established the standards for the complete system of generation, transmission and motors used today. The Jaruga Hydroelectric Power Establish in Croatia was set in operation on 28 August 1895. The 2 generators (42 Hz, 550 kW each) and the transformers were produced and installed past the Hungarian company Ganz. The transmission line from the power plant to the City of Šibenik was eleven.5 kilometers (vii.1 mi) long on wooden towers, and the municipal distribution grid 3000 5/110 V included vi transforming stations. Alternating electric current excursion theory adult quickly in the latter part of the 19th and early on 20th century. Notable contributors to the theoretical basis of alternate current calculations include Charles Steinmetz, Oliver Heaviside, and many others.^[31]
[32]
Calculations in unbalanced iii-phase systems were simplified by the symmetrical components methods discussed by Charles Legeyt Fortescue in 1918.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]

External links

[edit]

• “AC/DC: What’s the Difference?“. Edison’s Miracle of Light, American Experience. (PBS)
• “Air-conditioning/DC: Inside the Ac Generator Archived 2014-12-28 at the Wayback Machine“. Edison’due south Miracle of Light, American Experience. (PBS)
• Kuphaldt, Tony R., “Lessons In Electric Circuits : Book II – Air conditioning“. March eight, 2003. (Pattern Science License)
• Professor Marking Csele’s bout of the 25 Hz Rankine generating station
• Blalock, Thomas J., “The Frequency Changer Era: Interconnecting Systems of Varying Cycles“. The history of various frequencies and interconversion schemes in the US at the get-go of the 20th century
• Air-conditioning Power History and Timeline