Muhammad Ali Tried to Westernize Egypt by

Later period of Ottoman Egypt

The
history of Egypt nether the Muhammad Ali dynasty
(1805–1953) spanned the later on period of Ottoman Egypt, the Khedivate of Arab republic of egypt under British occupation, and the nominally contained Sultanate of Egypt and Kingdom of Egypt, ending with the Revolution of 1952 and the formation of the Democracy of Egypt.

Muhammad Ali’south rise to power

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The process of Muhammad Ali’s seizure of power was a long three way civil war between the Ottoman Turks, Egyptian Mamluks, and Albanian mercenaries. It lasted from 1803 to 1807 with the Albanian Muhammad Ali Pasha taking control of Egypt in 1805, when the Ottoman Sultan best-selling his position. Thereafter, Muhammad Ali was the undisputed chief of Arab republic of egypt, and his efforts henceforth were directed primarily to the maintenance of his practical independence.

Egypt nether Muhammad Ali

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Campaign against the Saudis

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The
Ottoman-Saudi state of war
in 1811–18 was fought between Egypt under the reign of Muhammad Ali (nominally under Ottoman dominion) and the Wahabbis of Najd who had conquered Hejaz from the Ottomans.

When Wahabis captured Mecca in 1802, the Ottoman sultan ordered Muhammad Ali of Egypt to beginning moving against Wahabbis to re-conquer Mecca and return the honour of the Ottoman Empire.

Outset Arabian campaign

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Acknowledging the sovereignty of the Ottoman Sultan, and at the commands of the Ottoman Porte, in 1811 Muhammad Ali dispatched an ground forces of 20,000 men (and two,000 horses) under the command of his son Tusun, a youth of sixteen, against the Saudis in the Ottoman–Saudi War. After a successful advance this force met with a serious repulse at the Battle of Al-Safra, and retreated to Yanbu. In the stop of the yr Tusun, having received reinforcements, again assumed the offensive and captured Medina after a prolonged siege. He next took Jeddah and Mecca, defeating the Saudi beyond the latter and capturing their general.

Only some mishaps followed, and Muhammad Ali, who had determined to acquit the war in person, left Egypt in the summer of 1813—leaving his other son Ibrahim in accuse of the state. He encountered serious obstacles in Arabia, predominantly stemming from the nature of the country and the harassing mode of warfare adopted past his adversaries, but on the whole his forces proved superior to those of the enemy. He deposed and exiled the Sharif of Mecca and after the death of the Saudi leader Saud he concluded a treaty with Saud’south son and successor, Abdullah I in 1815.

Post-obit reports that the Turks, whose cause he was upholding in Arabia, were treacherously planning an invasion of Egypt, and hearing of the escape of Napoleon from Elba and fearing danger to Arab republic of egypt from France or Britain, Muhammad Ali returned to Cairo by way of Kosseir and Kena, reaching the capital letter on the twenty-four hour period of the Battle of Waterloo.

Second Arabian campaign

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Tusun returned to Egypt on hearing of the military revolt at Cairo, but died in 1816 at the early on age of twenty. Muhammad Ali, dissatisfied with the treaty concluded with the Saudis, and with the non-fulfillment of certain of its clauses, determined to send some other regular army to Arabia, and to include in it the soldiers who had recently proved unruly.

This expedition, under his eldest son Ibrahim Pasha, left in the fall of 1816. The war was long and arduous simply in 1818 Ibrahim captured the Saudi capital of Diriyah. Abdullah I, their chief, was made prisoner and with his treasurer and secretarial assistant was sent to Istanbul (in some references he was sent to Cairo), where, in spite of Ibrahim’s promise of safety and of Muhammad Ali’s intercession in their favor,^{[
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they were put to death. At the shut of the twelvemonth 1819 Ibrahim returned having subdued all opposition in Arabia.

Reforms

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While the procedure had begun in 1808, Muhammad Ali’s representative at Cairo had completed the confiscation of nigh all the lands belonging to individual individuals, while he was absent-minded in Arabia (1813–15). The former owners were forced to accept inadequate pensions instead. By this revolutionary method of state nationalization Muhammad Ali became proprietor of well-nigh all the soil of Egypt.

During Ibrahim’s appointment in the second Arabian campaign, the pasha turned his attending to farther strengthening the Egyptian economy, and his control over it. He created state monopolies for the master products of the country, and created a number of factories. In 1819 he began excavation the new Mahmoudiyah Culvert to Alexandria, named after the reigning Sultan of Turkey. The old culvert had long fallen into decay, and the necessity of providing a condom channel between Alexandria and the Nile was much felt. The conclusion of the commercial Treaty of Balta Liman in 1838 between Turkey and United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, negotiated by Sir Henry Bulwer (Lord Darling), struck the death knell to the system of monopolies, though its application regarding Egypt was delayed for some years, and finally included strange intervention.

Another notable add-on to the economical progress of the country was the evolution of cotton wool tillage in the Nile Delta starting in 1822. The cotton wool seed for the new crop had been brought from the Sudan by Maho Bey, and with the organization of the new irrigation and industry, Muhammad Ali was able to extract considerable revenue in a few years fourth dimension.

Other domestic efforts were made to promote pedagogy and the written report of medicine. Muhammad Ali showed much favor, to European merchants, on whom he was dependent for the auction of his monopoly exports, and nether his influence the port of Alexandria again rose into importance. It was also under Muhammad Ali’southward encouragement that the overland transit of goods from Europe to India via Arab republic of egypt was resumed.

The Pasha as well attempted to reorganize his troops along European lines, but this led to a formidable wildcat in Cairo. Muhammad Ali’southward life was endangered, and he sought refuge past night in the citadel, while the soldiers committed many acts of plunder. The effects of the revolt were reduced by gifts to the insurgent’s leaders; Muhammad Ali also ordered that those who suffered from the disturbances should receive bounty from the land treasury. The conscription portion of the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Organisation) was temporarily abandoned, equally consequence of this mutiny.

Economy

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Egypt under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century had the fifth virtually productive cotton industry in the world, in terms of the number of spindles per capita.^[1]
The manufacture was initially driven by machinery that relied on traditional energy sources, such as animal ability, h2o wheels, and windmills, which were also the principle energy sources in Western Europe upwardly until around 1870.^[2]
While steam power had been experimented with in Ottoman Egypt by engineer Taqi advert-Din Muhammad ibn Ma’ruf in 1551, when he invented a steam jack driven by a rudimentary steam turbine,^[iii]
it was under Muhammad Ali in the early on 19th century that steam engines were introduced to Egyptian industrial manufacturing.^[2]
While in that location was a lack of coal deposits in Egypt, prospectors searched for coal deposits there, and manufactured boilers which were installed in Egyptian industries such as ironworks, material manufacturing, paper mills and hulling mills. Coal was also imported from overseas, at like prices to what imported coal price in France, until the 1830s, when Arab republic of egypt gained access to coal sources in Lebanese republic, which had a yearly coal output of 4,000 tons. Compared to Western Europe, Egypt also had superior agriculture and an efficient transport network through the Nile. Economical historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic atmospheric condition for rapid industrialization existed in Arab republic of egypt during the 1820s–1830s, as well every bit for the adoption of oil every bit a potential energy source for its steam engines subsequently in the 19th century.^[2]

Invasion of Libya and Sudan

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In 1820 Muhammad Ali gave orders to embark the conquest of eastern Libya. He starting time sent an expedition westward (February. 1820) which conquered and annexed the Siwa haven. Ali’s intentions for Sudan was to extend his rule southward, to capture the valuable caravan trade bound for the Red Sea, and to secure the rich gold mines which he believed to exist in Sennar. He also saw in the campaign a means of getting rid of his disaffected troops, and of obtaining a sufficient number of captives to course the nucleus of the new army.

The forces destined for this service were led past Ismail, his youngest son. They consisted of between 4000 and 5000 men, being Turks and Arabs. They left Cairo in July 1820. Nubia at once submitted, the Shaigiya tribe immediately beyond the province of Dongola were defeated, the remnant of the Mamluks dispersed, and Sennar was reduced without a boxing.

Mahommed Bey, the defterdar, with another forcefulness of virtually the same strength, was then sent by Muhammad Ali against Kordofan with like outcome, but not without a hard-fought date. In Oct 1822, Ismail, with his retinue, was burnt to death by Nimr, the mek (male monarch) of Shendi; post-obit this incident the defterdar, a man infamous for his cruelty, assumed the command of those provinces, and exacted terrible retribution from the inhabitants. Khartoum was founded at this time, and in the post-obit years the rule of the Egyptians was greatly extended and control of the Cherry Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa obtained.

Ahmad Revolt

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In 1824 a native rebellion broke out in Upper Egypt headed by i Ahmad, an inhabitant of al-Salimiyyah, a hamlet situated a few miles above Thebes. He proclaimed himself a prophet, and was soon followed by between xx,000 and 30,000 insurgents, mostly peasants, but some of them deserters from the Nizam Gedid, for that strength was even so in a half-organized land.

The peasants were angered past many of Ali’south reforms, especially the introduction of conscription and the increase in taxes and forced labour.

The insurrection was crushed by Muhammad Ali, and about one 4th of Ahmad’s followers perished, just he himself escaped and was never heard of again. Few of these unfortunates possessed any other weapon than the long staff (nabbut) of the Egyptian peasant; withal they offered an obstinate resistance, and the combat in which they were defeated resembled a massacre. This motility was the last internal effort to destroy the pasha’s authorization.

The subsequent years saw an imposition of society beyond Egypt and Ali’s new highly trained and disciplined forces spread across the nation. Public society was rendered perfect; the Nile and the highways were secure to all travelers, Christian or Muslim; the Bedouin tribes were won over to peaceful pursuits.

Greek campaign

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Muhammad Ali was fully conscious that the empire which he had so laboriously built up might at any time have to exist defended by forcefulness of arms confronting his chief Sultan Mahmud Two, whose whole policy had been directed to curbing the ability of his too ambitious vassals, and who was under the influence of the personal enemies of the pasha of Egypt, notably of Hüsrev Pasha, the Grand Vizier, who had never forgiven his humiliation in Egypt in 1803.

Mahmud likewise was already planning reforms borrowed from the West, and Muhammad Ali, who had plenty of opportunity of observing the superiority of European methods of warfare, was adamant to conceptualize the sultan in the creation of a fleet and an army on European lines, partly as a measure out of precaution, partly as an musical instrument for the realization of yet wider schemes of ambition. Earlier the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence in 1821, he had already expended much time and energy in organizing a fleet and in preparation, nether the supervision of French instructors, native officers and artificers; though it was non till 1829 that the opening of a dockyard and arsenal at Alexandria enabled him to build and equip his own vessels. By 1823, moreover, he had succeeded in carrying out the reorganization of his army on European lines, the turbulent Turkish and Albanian elements being replaced by Sudanese and
fellahin. The effectiveness of the new forcefulness was demonstrated in the suppression of an 1823 revolt of the Albanians in Cairo by half dozen disciplined Sudanese regiments; after which Mehemet Ali was no more troubled with military mutinies.

His foresight was rewarded past the invitation of the sultan to help him in the task of subduing the Greek insurgents, offer as reward the pashaliks of the Morea and of Syrian arab republic. Mehemet Ali had already, in 1821, been appointed by him governor of Crete, which he had occupied with a pocket-size Egyptian force. In the autumn of 1824 a armada of sixty Egyptian warships conveying a big force of 17,000 disciplined troops concentrated in Suda Bay, and, in the following March, with Ibrahin as commander-in-main landed in the Morea.

His naval superiority wrested from the Greeks the command of a nifty bargain of the sea, on which the fate of the insurrection ultimately depended, while on land the Greek irregular bands, having largely soundly beaten the Porte’s troops, had finally met a worthy foe in Ibrahim’s disciplined troops. The history of the events that led upwards to the battle of Navarino and the liberation of Hellenic republic is told elsewhere; the withdrawal of the Egyptians from the Morea was ultimately due to the action of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington, who early in August 1828 appeared before Alexandria and induced the pasha, past no means deplorable to have a reasonable excuse, by a threat of bombardment, to sign a convention undertaking to recall Ibrahim and his army. But for the activity of European powers, it is suspected by many that the Ottoman Empire might take defeated the Greeks.

War with the Sultan

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Ali went to war against the sultan on in order to obtain raw materials defective in Egypt (especially timber for his navy) and a convict marketplace for Egypt’south new industrial output. From fall 1831 to December 1832 Ibrahim led the Egyptian army through Lebanon and Syrian arab republic and beyond the Taurus Mountains into Anatolia where he defeated the Ottoman forces and pushed on to Kutahya, simply 150 miles from Istanbul.^[4]

For the next ten years relations between the Sultan and the Pasha remained in the forefront of the questions which agitated the diplomatic world. It was not only the very existence of the Ottoman empire that seemed to be at stake, but Arab republic of egypt itself had become more than ever the object of international attention, to British statesmen especially, and in the event of the struggle were involved the interests of United kingdom in the two routes to India past the Isthmus of Suez and the valley of the Euphrates. Ibrahim, who again commanded in his begetter’s name, launched another brilliant entrada beginning with the storming of Acre on May 27, 1832, and culminating in the rout and capture of Reshid Pasha at Konya on Dec 21.

Presently after he was blocked by the intervention of Russia, however. As the event of countless discussions betwixt the representatives of the powers, the Porte and the pasha, the Convention of Kütahya was signed on May 14, 1833, past which the sultan agreed to bestow on Muhammad Ali the pashaliks of Syria, Damascus, Aleppo and Itcheli, together with the district of Adana.^[five]
The announcement of the pasha’s appointment had already been made in the usual mode in the annual
firman
issued on May three. Adana was bestowed on Ibrahim nether the fashion of muhassil, or collector of the crown revenues, a few days later.

Muhammad Ali now ruled over a nearly independent empire, stretching from the Sudan to the Taurus Mountains, subject just to a moderate almanac tribute. However the unsound foundations of his potency were not long in revealing themselves. Scarcely a year from the signing of the Convention of Kutaya the application by Ibrahim of Egyptian methods of government, notably of the monopolies and conscription, had driven Syrians, Druze and Arabs, into revolt, after beginning welcoming him as a deliverer. The unrest was suppressed by Muhammad Ali in person, and the Syrians were terrorized, merely their discontent encouraged the Sultan Mahmud to promise for revenge, and a renewal of the conflict was only staved off by the broken-hearted efforts of the European powers.

In the spring of 1839 the sultan ordered his ground forces, concentrated under Reshid in the border district of Bir on the Euphrates, to accelerate over the Syrian frontier. Ibrahim, seeing his flank menaced, attacked it at Nezib on the 24th of June. Once more the Ottomans were utterly routed. Six days later, before the news reached Constantinople, Mahmud died.

Now, with the defeat of the Ottomans and the conquest of Syria, Muhammad Ali had reached the summit of his power. For one brief moment in time, he had get the envy of the Egyptian kings of antiquity, decision-making Arab republic of egypt, the Sudan, and Syria (which lonely would have made him their better in power) he saw the Ottoman armies collapse or autumn into disorganization after their defeat in Syria, and it looked similar the Middle E and Anatolia were his for the taking. It looked similar he could march all the fashion to Istanbul, in the minds of some, and identify himself on the Sultan’s throne.

With the Ottoman Empire at the feet of Muhammad Ali, the European powers were greatly alarmed and issued the Convention of London of 1840, designed to end the war and deal with the probable contingency of Muhammad Ali’s refusal. Their intervention during the Oriental Crisis of 1840 was prompt, launching an invasion by a primarily British forcefulness (with some French and Greek elements), they fabricated short work of Muhammad Ali’s pride and joy: Arab republic of egypt’s modernistic Military. Even so, while his ground forces was beingness defeated, Muhammad saw the possibility of victory in France’s unwillingness to participate (it having some warm feelings to the Khedive, and mainly participating with what was considered a token force to endeavour to block a British expansion in North Africa.) However, in spite of France’s dislike of an Egypt dominated by the British, it was equally unwilling to permit the ambitious Governor to upset the balance of ability, and thus, by waiting for the hope of a better chance at victory, Muhammad Ali had to endure a harder defeat.

However, though he had lost Syria and his position of great power, the war with the West had not been a complete disaster past any means. For though humiliated and defeated past the Western Powers, the West had no intention of removing him and the cake he placed on Ottoman Power. Thus, though the peace treaty was harsh, it accomplished ane of Muhammad Ali’s greatest dreams: to place his family firmly in the reigns of Egyptian ability. It was far from all that the crafty Pasha had wanted, only it was what he had to live with, for even in the ending days of the Syrian State of war, Muhammad was starting to testify his age, and would notice that he did not accept much fourth dimension left in the globe.

Terminate of Muhammad Ali’s rule

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The end was reached early in 1841. New ‘firmans’ were issued which bars the pasha’s authority to Arab republic of egypt, including the Sinai peninsula and certain places on the Arabian side of the Reddish Sea, and to the Sudan. The most important of these documents is dated February thirteen, 1841.

The regime of the pashalik of Egypt was fabricated hereditary within the family unit of Muhammad Ali. A map showing the boundaries of Egypt accompanied the firman granting Muhammad Ali the pashalik, a duplicate copy being retained by the Porte. The Egyptian copy is supposed to have been lost in a fire which destroyed a great role of the Egyptian archives. The Turkish copy has never been produced and its being now appears doubtful. The betoken was of importance, as in 1892 and again in 1906 boundary disputes arose between Ottoman Empire and the Egyptian Khiedevate.

Various restrictions were laid upon Muhammad Ali, emphasizing his position as vassal. He was forbidden to maintain a armada and his army was non to exceed 18,000 men. The pasha no longer a disrupting figure in European politics, merely he continued to occupy himself with his improvements in Egypt. But times were not all good; the long wars combined with murrain of cattle in 1842 and a subversive Nile overflowing made matters worse. In 1843 there was a plague of locusts where whole villages were depopulated. Even the sequestered army was a strain enough for a population unaccustomed to the rigidities of the conscription service. Florence Nightingale, the famous British nurse, recounts in her messages from Egypt written in 1849–50, that many an Egyptian family thought it be enough to “protect” their children from the inhumanities of the military service by blinding them in one heart or rendering them unfit by cutting off their limb. Merely Muhammad Ali was not to be confounded by such tricks of bodily not-compliance, and with that view he gear up upwardly a special corps of disabled musketeers declaring that one tin shoot well enough even with one eye.

Meantime the farthest farthing was wrung from the wretched
fellahin, while they were forced to the building of magnificent public works by unpaid labor. In 1844–45 there was some improvement in the condition of the land as a result of financial reforms the pasha executed. Muhammad Ali, who had been granted the honorary rank of k vizier in 1842, paid a visit to Istanbul in 1846, where he became reconciled to his old enemy Khosrev Pasha, whom he had not seen since he spared his life at Cairo in 1803.

In 1847 Muhammad Ali laid the foundation stone of the great bridge across the Nile at the beginning of the Delta. Towards the end of 1847, the aged pasha’s previously precipitous mind began to give mode, and past the following June he was no longer capable of administering the government. In September 1848 Ibrahim was best-selling past the Porte as ruler of the pashalik, but he died in the following Nov.

Muhammad Ali survived some other eight months, dying on August ii, 1849. He had washed a great piece of work in Egypt, the most permanent existence the weakening of the tie binding the country to Turkey, the starting of the great cotton industry, the recognition of the advantages of European science, and the conquest of the Sudan.

Muhammad Ali’due south successors

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On Ibrahim’south death in November 1848 the government of Egypt barbarous to his nephew Abbas I, the son of Tusun Abbasad. Abbas put an stop to the system of commercial monopolies, and during his reign the railway from Alexandria to Cairo was begun at the instigation of the British government. Opposed to European ways, Abbas lived in great seclusion. Subsequently a reign of less than half-dozen years he was murdered in July 1854 by 2 of his slaves.

He was succeeded by his uncle Said Pasha, the favorite son of Muhammad Ali, who lacked the force of heed or physical health needed to execute the beneficent projects which he conceived. His endeavour, for instance, to put a end to the slave raiding which devastated the Sudan was wholly ineffectual. He had a genuine regard for the welfare of the
fellahin, and a land law of 1858^[6]
secured for them an acknowledgment of freehold every bit against land ownership.

The pasha was much under French influence, and in 1854 was induced to grant to the French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps a concession “to class a financial visitor to pierce the isthmus” and operate a canal for 99 years. Lord Palmerston was opposed to this project, and the British opposition delayed the ratification of the concession by the Porte for two years. This prompted a second concession in 1856 that obligated the Egyptian government to provide fourscore% of the labour for the canal’s structure.^[7]
Said as well made concessions to the British, for the Eastern Telegraph Company, and some other in 1854 allowing the establishment of the Bank of Arab republic of egypt. He also began the national debt by borrowing £3,293,000 from Messrs Fruhling & Goschen, the bodily amount received by the pasha being £two,640,000. In January 1863 Said Pasha died and was succeeded by his nephew Ismail, a son of Ibrahim Pasha.

Ismail the Magnificent

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The reign of Ismail, from 1863 to 1879, was initially hailed equally a new era of bringing Egypt into modernity. He completed vast development schemes and attempted positive authoritative reforms, just this progress, coupled with his personal extravagance led to bankruptcy. The afterwards part of his reign is historically and nationally important simply for its result, which brought European intervention securely into Egyptian finances and evolution, and led to the British occupation of Egypt shortly thereafter.

In his before years of reign, much was changed regarding Arab republic of egypt’s sovereignty, which seemed likely to give Ismail a more important place in history. In 1866 the Ottoman Sultan granted him a
firman, obtained on status that he increase his annual tribute from £376,000 to £720,000. This made the succession to the throne of Egypt descend to the eldest of the male children and in the same fashion to the eldest sons of these successors, instead of to the eldest male of the family unit, post-obit the exercise of Turkish police. In the next twelvemonth another
firman
bestowed upon him the title of khedive in lieu of that of
vali, borne by Mehemet Ali and his immediate successors. In 1873 a further
firman
placed the khedive in many respects in the position of an independent sovereign.

Ismail re-established and improved Muhammad Ali’south administrative system, which had fallen into disuse nether Abbas’due south uneventful rule. This included a thorough revamping of the customs system which was anarchic, and remodeled on British lines and by English language officials. In 1865, he established the Egyptian post office; he reorganized the military schools of his grandfather, and gave some support to the cause of education. Railways, telegraphs, irrigation projects, lighthouses, the harbour works at Suez, and the breakwater at Alexandria, were carried out during his reign, by some of the all-time contractors of Europe. Most important of all, was Egypt’south back up for the Suez Culvert, which finally opened in 1869. Non but did the government purchase many shares in the venture, initially intended for British investors, it provided the corvee labour to dig the culvert, equally well as digging a canal to bring Nile h2o to the new city of Ismailia at the Suez’s midpoint. When Khedive Ismail sought to terminate Arab republic of egypt’s corvee labour obligation, because he needed it for cotton fiber product to accept reward of vastly inflated cotton prices, caused by the loss of American exports during its Ceremonious War, Arab republic of egypt was compelled to pay more than £iii million in bounty to the Canal Company. The funds helped pay for the elaborate dredging equipment brought in to supervene upon the labour and needed to complete the canal.^[viii]

Once that disharmonize ended Ismail had to detect new sources of funding to keep his development and reform efforts alive. Thus the funds required for these public works, as well as the actual labor, were remorselessly extorted from a poverty-stricken population. A striking picture of the condition of the people at this period is given by Lady Duff Gordon in
Concluding Letters from Egypt. Writing in 1867 she said: “I cannot draw the misery here now every solar day some new revenue enhancement. Every beast, camel, cow, sheep, donkey and horse is fabricated to pay. The fellaheen can no longer eat bread; they are living on barley-meal mixed with water, and raw dark-green stuff, vetches, &c. The tax makes life almost incommunicable: a tax on every crop, on every animal first, and once again when information technology is sold in the market; on every man, on charcoal, on butter, on salt. . . . The people in Upper Arab republic of egypt are running abroad by wholesale, utterly unable to pay the new taxes and do the work exacted. Even hither (Cairo) the beating for the years taxes is awful.”

In the late 1860s Egypt attempted to build a modern navy and ordered several armored ironclads, two each of the “Nijmi Shevket” class and the “Lutfi Djelil” class. Although intended for the Egyptian Navy, these ironclads had to be delivered to the Ottoman Navy in 1869. Egypt was able to keep a navy with a few unarmored warships including the fe steam frigate
Ibrahim
and a large yacht, the “Mahroussa” which survives in rebuilt grade to the nowadays twenty-four hour period.

In the years that followed the status of things grew worse. Thousands of lives were lost and large sums expended in extending Ismail’southward dominions in the Sudan and in futile conflicts with Ethiopia. In 1875, the impoverishment of the
fellah
had reached such a loftier point that the ordinary resources of the state no longer sufficed for the virtually urgent necessities of administration; and the khedive Ismail, having repeatedly broken religion with his creditors, could not heighten whatsoever more than loans on the European market. The taxes were habitually collected many months in advance, and the jumbo floating debt was increasing rapidly. In these circumstances Ismail had to realize his remaining assets, and amongst them sold 176,602 Suez Canal shares to the British government for £976,582, which surrendered Egyptian control of the waterway.

These crises induced the British government to ask more than carefully into the financial condition of the state, where Europeans had invested much capital. In December 1875, Stephen Cave, MP, and Colonel (subsequently Sir) John Stokes, RE, were sent to Egypt to inquire into Egypt’s financial state of affairs. Mr Cave’s study, made public simply in April 1876, showed that under the existing administration national bankruptcy was inevitable. With no alternatives, European powers used Egypt’s indebtedness to extract concessions regarding how the debts would be repaid. Other commissions of inquiry followed, and each one brought Ismail increasingly under European control. The establishment of the Mixed Tribunals in 1876, in identify of the organisation of consular jurisdiction in civil actions, fabricated some of the courts of justice international.

The Caisse de la Dette, instituted in May 1876 as a result of the Cave mission, led to international control over a large portion of the regime’southward revenue. In November 1876, the mission of Mr (afterwards Lord) Goschen and Thou. Joubert on behalf of the British and French bondholders, 1 result being the establishment of Dual Command, in which an English official would superintend the revenues and a French official would superintend the expenditures of the country. Another result was the international control of the railways and the port of Alexandria, to residuum these items. And so, in May 1878, a commission of inquiry of which the principal members were Sir Charles Rivers Wilson, Major Evelyn Baring (subsequently Lord Cromer) and MM. Kremer-Baravelli and Monsieur de Blignières. One event of that inquiry was the extension of international control to the enormous belongings of the khedive himself.

Driven to agony in September 1878, Ismail made a virtue of necessity and, in lieu of the Dual Control, accepted a ramble ministry building, under the presidency of Nubar Pasha; Rivers Wilson became minister of finance and de Blignières became government minister of public works. Professing to exist quite satisfied with this organisation, he announced that Egypt was no longer in Africa but a office of Europe. Within seven months however, he found his constitutional position intolerable, got rid of his irksome cabinet by means of a secretly organized military riot in Cairo, and reverted to his erstwhile autocratic methods of government.

Uk and France, anxious most losing influence under this barb, decided to administer chastisement past the hand of the suzerain ability, which was delighted to take an opportunity of asserting its potency. The Europeans and the Sublime Porte decided to force Ismail out of role. On the June 26, 1879 Ismail suddenly received from the sultan a short telegram, addressed to him as ex-khedive of Egypt, informing him that his son Tewfik was appointed his successor. Surprised, he fabricated no attempt at resistance, and Tewfik was at in one case proclaimed khedive.

Dual control

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Afterwards a brusk flow of inaction, when it seemed as if the change might exist for the worse, U.k. and French republic in November 1879, re-established the Dual Control in the persons of Major Baring and Monsieur de Blignières. For two years the Dual Control governed Egypt. Discontent within diverse sectors of the elite and among elements of the population at big led to a reaction against European interference.^[9]
Without any efficient means of self-protection and compulsion at its disposal, it had to interfere with the power, privileges and perquisites of the local elite. This elite, so far every bit its civilian members were concerned, was not very formidable, considering these were not likely to go beyond the premises of intrigue and passive resistance; but it independent a military element who had more than backbone, and who had learned their power when Ismail employed them for overturning his constitutional ministry.

Amid the mutinous soldiers on that occasion was an officer calling himself Ahmed Urabi. He was a charismatic leader who was followed past a group of fellow regular army officers and many among the lower classes. He became the middle of a protest aimed at protecting the Egyptians from their Turkish and European oppressors. The movement began among the Arab officers, who complained of the preference shown to the officers of Turkish origin; information technology then expanded into an assault on the privileged position and predominant influence of foreigners; finally, information technology was directed against all Christians, strange and native. The government, being too weak to suppress the agitation and disorder, had to brand concessions, and each concession produced fresh demands. Urabi was first promoted, so made under-secretary for war, and ultimately a member of the cabinet.

The danger of a serious rising brought the British and French fleets in May 1882 to Alexandria. Because of concerns over the safety of the Suez Culvert and massive British investments in Egypt the Europeans looked to intervene. The French hesitated, however, and the British alone tried to suppress the revolt. On July eleven, 1882, subsequently widespread revolts in Alexandria, the British fleet bombarded the city. The leaders of the national movement prepared to resist further assailment past forcefulness. A briefing of ambassadors was held in Constantinople, and the sultan was invited to quell the revolt; merely he hesitated to use his troops against what was far more a threat to European interests.

Egypt occupied past the British

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The British regime decided to employ armed force, and invited France to cooperate. The French government declined, and a similar invitation to Italy met with a like refusal. Britain therefore, acting alone, landed troops at Ismailia under Sir Garnet Wolseley, and suppressed the revolt by the boxing of Tel-el-Kebir on September thirteen, 1882. While it had been claimed this was meant to exist but a temporary intervention, British troops would remain in Egypt until 1956. The landing in Ismailia happened due to the British failure to perform the original plan to destroy defences in Alexandria, then march to Cairo.

With no fleet to protect the city, British battleships easily bombarded the city, forcing many civilians to migrate. Uraby, the Egyptian ground forces commander, was non allowed to have troopers exceeding 800 men strong. Defeated in Alexandria, he decided to fight the British on ground he gathered the 2,200 men at Kafr-el-sheikh and constructed strong base which he held against a force of 2,600 British who were trying to advance on Cairo from the north. The boxing took place betwixt an Egyptian regular army, headed by Ahmed ‘Urabi, and British forces headed by Sir Archibald Alison. As a effect, the British abased any promise they may have had of reaching Cairo from the due north, and shifted their base of operations to Ismailia instead. The British forces retreating to their principal base at Alexandria. The British then transported a big force of Ismailia where xiii,000 of them engaged 16,000 Egyptians. They met Uraby at El-Tal El-Kebier which was weakly prepared comparison with the defence lines at Kafr- El- Shiekh to withstand heavy artillery, so the fort was taken and Uraby was exiled to India.

The khedive, who had taken refuge in Alexandria, returned to Cairo, and a ministry was formed under Sherif Pasha, with Riaz Pasha as 1 of its leading members. On assuming office, the commencement affair it had to exercise was to bring to trial the chiefs of the rebellion. Urabi pleaded guilty, was sentenced to death, the judgement being commuted by the khedive to adjournment; and Riaz resigned in disgust. This solution of the difficulty was brought about past Lord Dufferin, then British administrator at Istanbul, who had been sent to Arab republic of egypt as high commissioner to adjust affairs and report on the state of affairs.

One of his outset acts, afterward preventing the awarding of capital punishment to the ringleaders of the revolt, was to veto the project of protecting the khedive and his government by ways of a Praetorian baby-sit recruited from Asia Minor, Epirus, Austria and Switzerland, and to insist on the principle that Arab republic of egypt must be governed in a truly liberal spirit. Passing in review all the departments of the administration, he laid down the general lines on which the land was to be restored to order and prosperity, and endowed, if possible, with the elements of self-government for hereafter use.

Demographic changes during the reign of Muhammad Ali and his successors

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During this period the stagnation of the Egyptian population that had been fluctuating at virtually 4 million level for many centuries prior to 1805^[10]
was inverse by the start of a rapid population growth. This growth was quite slow till the 1840s, but since so the Egyptian population grew up to almost 7 1000000 by the 1880s, and the kickoff modern census registered 9,734,405 people in Arab republic of egypt in 1897. This was achieved past a radical decrease in mortality rates and concomitant growth of life expectancy by ten–15 years, which, of form, indicates that Muhammad Ali and his successors in fact achieved impressive success in the effective modernization of Arab republic of egypt and that the bodily quality of life of the majority of the Egyptian population significantly increased in the 19th century.^[11]
In Egypt in the 19th century the overall pattern of the population growth was explicitly not-Malthusian and tin be characterized as hyperbolic, whereby the increase in population was accompanied not by decreases of the relative population growth rates, just by their increases.

Rulers of the Dynasty

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11 rulers spanned the 148 years of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty from 1805 to 1953.

• Muhammad Ali Dynasty family tree

Meet as well

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• Category:Muhammad Ali dynasty
• History of Modern Arab republic of egypt
• Al-Nahda

References

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This article incorporates text from a publication at present in the public domain:Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). “Egypt/3 History”. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 110–113.

External links

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• Egyptian Royalty — by Ahmed Due south. Kamel, Hassan Kamel Kelisli-Morali, Georges Soliman and Magda Malek
• Fifty’Egypte D’Antan… Egypt in Bygone Days — past Max Karkegi
• Early Photos: Egypt in the 1800s — slideshow by Life magazine
• Collection: Egypt in the 19th Century Photography from the University of Michigan Museum of Fine art

Further reading

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• Daly, Thousand.W.
  The Cambridge History Of Egypt Volume two Modern Egypt, from 1517 to the end of the twentieth century
  (1998) online
• Hunter, F. Robert (1999).
  Arab republic of egypt Nether the Khedives, 1805–1879: From Household Regime to Modern Hierarchy. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press. ISBN978-977-424-544-two.
  
• Hopkins, A. G. (1986). “The Victorians and Africa: A Reconsideration of the Occupation of Egypt, 1882”.
  Journal of African History.
  27
  (2): 363–391. doi:10.1017/s0021853700036719. ISSN 0021-8537. JSTOR 181140.
  
• Perry, Glenn Earl (2004).
  
  The History of Egypt
  . Greenwood Publishing Grouping. ISBN978-0-313-32264-8.